On November 15, 1941, General George Marshall, the U.S. Army Chief of Staff, held a secret briefing for a select group of reporters. He discussed the growing tensions between the United States and Japan. When asked about the possibility of war, he went off the record and declared that the U.S. would be "merciless." He described plans to bomb Japanese cities without hesitation, targeting civilians and aiming for total destruction.
Just three weeks later, the attack on Pearl Harbor thrust the U.S. into war with Japan. Following this, American forces began a series of island-hopping campaigns across the Central Pacific, inching closer to Japan. With the capture of the Marianas Islands, the U.S. military prepared for a new phase in the conflict.
In 1943, at the Dugway Proving Ground in Utah, the Army Air Force built a life-sized replica of a Japanese city, named "Little Tokyo." This mock-up allowed them to experiment with bombing techniques on wooden structures with paper walls. They used authentic Japanese furnishings and clothing to make the tests as realistic as possible. The goal was to determine the most effective bombing methods for urban areas.
The Army ultimately selected the M69 napalm bomb for its destructive potential. This relatively small bomb was designed to spread flaming gel over a wide area, igniting multiple fires that would quickly engulf wooden and paper structures. The implications of using such a weapon were alarming, especially considering the high potential for civilian casualties. By this time in the war, American sentiment against Japan had hardened, and concerns about morality were often overshadowed by the desire for victory.
To deliver these bombs, the U.S. relied on the B-29 Superfortress, a cutting-edge bomber that was the largest and most advanced of its time. Despite its impressive design and capabilities, early B-29 missions were disappointing. High-altitude bombing proved ineffective due to the jet stream, which wreaked havoc on flight paths and accuracy. As a result, the loss of aircraft and crews was significant, raising concerns about the bomber’s effectiveness.
In June 1944, a B-29 raid against Japan resulted in the loss of several bombers and minimal damage to the target. Frustrated by these outcomes, General Henry "Hap" Arnold brought in General Curtis LeMay to revamp the bombing strategy. LeMay was known for his aggressive tactics and was determined to achieve results.
Initially, LeMay continued with high-altitude bombing but soon recognized its limitations. On February 28, 1945, he conducted a low-altitude test over Tokyo that yielded devastating results. Encouraged by this success, he decided to implement a bold new strategy: a nighttime bombing raid at low altitude, using incendiary bombs.
On March 9, 1945, LeMay launched "Operation Meetinghouse," sending 324 B-29s toward Tokyo. The bombers were stripped of their defensive weapons to carry more bombs. LeMay understood the risks involved, acknowledging that many civilians would likely be killed. He framed the mission as essential to crippling Japanese industry and avoiding a costly ground invasion.
As the bombers approached Tokyo, the city’s residents were unaware of the impending disaster. The raid began just after 5:30 p.m., with the bombers targeting a densely populated area. The results were catastrophic, leading to widespread destruction and loss of life.
This operation marked a significant shift in U.S. bombing tactics during World War II, reflecting the intense pressures of war and the lengths to which military leaders would go to secure victory.